This chapter explains how villages became economically strong and towns emerged as centres of trade, craft, and administration with the spread of iron technology, agricultural expansion, craft production, and long-distance trade.

Iron Tools and Agricultural Expansion

• Iron came into use around 3000 years ago
• About 2500 years ago, its use increased rapidly
• Important iron tools:
  • Axes – used to clear forests
  • Iron ploughshare – helped in deeper ploughing and higher production
• Transplantation of crops and irrigation further increased agricultural output

📌 Increased production supported population growth and urban centres.

Landowners and Labourers

Southern India

• Vellalar – large landowners
• Ezhava – ploughmen
• Kadaisiyar and Adimai – landless labourers and slaves

Northern India

• Gramabhojaka – village headman
  • Hereditary
  • Largest landowner
  • Collected taxes for the king
• Other groups:
  • Independent farmers
  • Workers and labourers

📌 Villages had clear social and economic divisions.

Early Tamil Literature: Sangam Texts

• Sangam literature was composed about 2300 years ago
• Written and compiled in assemblies called Sangams
• Sangams were held in Madurai
• These texts provide information on:
  • Kings and wars
  • Daily life
  • Trade and occupations

Sources for Understanding Early Cities

Jatakas

• Stories composed by ordinary people
• Written and preserved by Buddhist monks
• Provide insights into:
  • Social life
  • Trade
  • Moral values

Sculptures

• Carved scenes depicting people’s daily activities
• Found in cities and religious sites

Travel Accounts

• Sailors and travellers described cities they visited
• Example: A Greek sailor’s account of Bharuch

Coins and Economy

• Punch-marked coins were widely used
• Made of silver or copper
• Designs were punched onto metal
• Used for about 500 years

📌 Coins indicate:

• Growth of trade
• Monetised economy
• State authority

Cities and Their Functions

Mathura

• Important for more than 2500 years
• Located at crossroads of:
  • North-West → East
  • North → South
• Centre of:
  • Trade
  • Religious activity
  • Sculpture production
• Became capital of the Kushanas about 2000 years ago

Crafts and Craftspersons

• Production of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) – extremely fine pottery
• Famous craft centres:
  • Varanasi – cloth production
  • Madurai – textiles and crafts
• Craftspersons and merchants formed Shrenis (guilds)

Shrenis

• Associations of craftspersons and merchants
• Provided:
  • Training
  • Raw materials
  • Financial help
• Also functioned like banks

Arikamedu: A Coastal Trading Centre

• Arikamedu
• Active between 2200 and 1900 years ago
• Coastal settlement
• Ships brought goods from distant lands
• Archaeologists found:
  • A massive brick structure (possibly a warehouse)

📌 Indicates overseas trade connections.

Urban Facilities: Ring Wells

• Ring wells found in several cities
• Made of rows of pots or ceramic rings
• Possibly used as:
  • Toilets
  • Drains
  • Garbage dumps

📌 Shows concern for urban sanitation.

Key Terms

Timeline