Religion has always been a central institution in human society. Among sociologists, Émile Durkheim was the first to provide a systematic and scientific explanation of religion. In his classic work The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912), Durkheim studied the simplest societies — Australian aboriginal tribes — to understand the essential nature of religion and its role in maintaining social solidarity.
Durkheim argued that religion is not just about gods, supernatural forces, or rituals. Instead, it is fundamentally a social phenomenon that expresses the collective consciousness of society.
Durkheim’s Definition of Religion
Durkheim defined religion as:
“A unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things… which unite into one single moral community, called a Church, all those who adhere to them.”
This definition emphasises:
- Beliefs (ideology)
- Rituals (practices)
- Sacred elements
- Moral community or collective unity
Thus, religion binds individuals into a unified social group.
Sacred and Profane: The Core of Religion
In Émile Durkheim’s sociology of religion, the sacred refers to objects, beliefs, symbols, or practices that a society sets apart as holy, powerful, and deserving of reverence. These are not inherently sacred on their own — their significance comes from the collective beliefs of a community. Sacred things inspire feelings of awe, respect, and obligation. Examples include religious scriptures, temples, national flags, or even natural objects like rivers or trees that are treated as holy. By worshipping shared sacred symbols, people reinforce their collective identity and social unity.
The profane, on the other hand, represents the ordinary, everyday, and utilitarian aspects of life. These are routine objects and activities not given special status or spiritual meaning. Eating, working, or wearing regular clothes are profane actions. The key distinction between sacred and profane is social, not physical — the same object can move from profane to sacred if society assigns new meaning to it. Durkheim argued that the separation between sacred and profane is the central feature of religious life, because it structures behaviour and strengthens group solidarity.
Durkheim proposed that the entire world is divided into two categories:
| Concept | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Sacred | Objects, symbols, or practices considered holy, powerful, deserving reverence |
| Profane | Ordinary, everyday things with no special significance |
What makes something sacred is not the object itself, but the collective meaning imposed by society.
Example: A flag becomes sacred because the community attributes symbolic value to it.
Thus, by worshipping sacred symbols, people are actually worshipping their own society.
Totemism: The Earliest Form of Religion
Durkheim studied aboriginal clans of Australia, where each clan had a totem — usually an animal or plant — treated as sacred.
He concluded:
- Totem represents the group itself
- Worship of the totem = worship of society
Totemism revealed the true essence of religion:
- Religion originates from collective life
- Rituals reinforce group unity
- Sacred symbols express collective consciousness
Religion and Social Solidarity
For Durkheim, religion plays a functional role in society:
- Creates Social Cohesion
Rituals bring people together, strengthening social bonds. - Promotes Social Control
Religious norms and moral values guide behaviour. - Provides Meaning and Purpose
Religion offers answers to existential questions (death, suffering, fate). - Strengthens Collective Consciousness
Shared beliefs unify communities into moral communities.
Thus, religion is vital for maintaining social order.
Forms of Religion According to Durkheim
Durkheim viewed religion as evolving alongside society:
| Stage | Form of Religion | Nature of Society |
|---|---|---|
| Simple Societies | Totemism | Mechanical solidarity; strong collective conscience |
| Complex Societies | Organized World Religions | Organic solidarity; weaker collective conscience |
In modern societies, religion becomes more individualistic, but still performs a unifying function.
Pathological Roles of Religion
Durkheim acknowledged that religion may become dysfunctional:
- Can cause social divisions
- May resist social change
- Can lead to intolerance and conflict
If religion loses relevance or fails to adapt to changing conditions, it may create anomie (normlessness).
Durkheim vs. Other Sociologists on Religion
| Thinker | Key View |
|---|---|
| Durkheim | Religion promotes social solidarity |
| Marx | Religion creates false consciousness and supports exploitation |
| Weber | Religion can drive social change (e.g., Protestant Ethic) |
Durkheim differs from both conflict and individualistic perspectives, focusing on collective functions.
Conclusion
Émile Durkheim’s theory of religion remains one of the most influential contributions to sociology. By emphasizing the social origin of religion and its role in binding people together, he revealed why religion persists through history. Even in modern secular societies, sacred symbols continue to give meaning, identity, and unity to social groups. Understanding Durkheim helps us interpret religion not simply as a belief in the divine but as the heart of social life.
FAQs
Sacred refers to objects and beliefs given special value by society, whereas profane includes ordinary everyday things.
He believed that the simplest form of religion would reveal the true essence of religious life.
Society itself — because sacred symbols represent the collective group.
Through shared rituals, common moral values, and group identity.
The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912).
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